Historical analysis of the development of libraries and Library and Information Science (LIS) education in Africa, particulary those chronicled by Sitzman (1988), help to identify four tendencies. Firstly, that libraries emerged on African soil before professional training of staff.If the libraries were manned by professional staff at all, the staff were not trained locally, in Africa. Secondly, there has been tremendous dependence on foreign governments particularly Britain, France, USA and Portugal and philanthropists for the development of libraries and LIS education. This dependence seem to continue in countries without LIS education programmes.Thirdly, most libraries established were either public, academic or special. The creation of tertiary institutions, particularly universities that depend heavily on libraries, contributed to growth of academic libraries that also demand highly qualified LIS staff. Public libraries received worldwide publicity particularly after Unesco Public Library Manifesto of 1949. School libraries have always been neglected in Africa. Lastly, LIS education in Africa, were established, largely, after 1960 a factor that, partly, reiterate the dependence on foreign countries for LIS manpower training. Whereas there were only five main LIS education institutions in Africa located in Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and Uganda(Sitzman, 1988) besides eighteen in South Africa by 1980, several promiment LIS training institutions got established within universities, colleges, national library services and through professional associations with government support on the continent ( Bock 1987, Aina 1995 and Ocholla 1997 -see annexture one). Through the assistance from the metropole, African governments began to invest on LIS education programmes at home to replace and supplement reliance on foreign countries. Arguably, LIS education hosted away from home enviroments is , largely, out of touch with practical realities in home country and often questionable in terms of relevance.

There is a close link between the development of LIS education and departments in Africa and the magnitude in the growth and development of libraries and LIS education in the metropole. This relationship, perhaps, attributes to reasons why more growth is experienced in the English speaking, and to some extent, French speaking countries as opposed to Portuguise and Spanish speaking nations. Among the French speaking countries, besides Senegal, where University of Dakar/ Cheikh Anta Diop plays a major role in LIS education for these nations, and Morrocco, that is also arab speaking, paradoxically, the bulk of LIS education in the Francophone is presumably done outside the region, notwithstanding the existence of libraries in these countries for decades.

Lucophone Africa that include; Angola, Cape Verde, Guine Bissau, Mozambique and Sao Tome E. Principe, have libraries but no reported LIS education programmes locally. Angola and Mozambique has been at war most of this time and this, I believe, contributed to poor infrastructure for library and information services. I also doubt wether Portugal, their major ally, invested enough into this cultural feild when compared to Britain and France.

Unlike other African countries in the three categories, South Africa has a longer LIS education history dating back from1938 when the first training of librarians began at the University of Pretoria followed by creation of LIS departments in 14 other universities upto 1973 when the 15 th LIS department was established at University of Transkei (Musiker in Aswegen, 1997:53). Technicon/polytechnic education and training in five institutions followed much later between 1984 to 1987(Aswegen, 1997:54). At the moment eighteen LIS departments established within universities and technikons/polytechnics are operational (see annexture). However, the apartheid legacy that segragated the countries population on racial lines until 1994, prevented the majority of South African population, particularly blacks, from beneffiting from information services infrastructure. Whilst politics influenced LIS education in South Africa, culture and religion has showed influences in Sudan where religion prevent mixing of male and female in one learning environment leading to high costs in LIS education. Whether prolification of LIS education intitutions in African countries such Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa is cost effective raise major questions. It seems to me that the concern I raised on supply and demand regarding LIS eduvcation in Kenya still create agenda for current debate ( Ocholla, 1995)

I consider programmes to denote consolidated learning activities, procceses and levels that offer specific inlets, outlets and outcomes. The outlets lead to certificates, diplomas and degrees. Outcomes, that are competency based, are determined by the ability of the graduate to perform professional or tasks they are qualified or trained effectively and efficiently with no or minimal supervision.

The typical inlets and outlets in the region are created at the undergraduate level. Such programmes include the Certificate in Library and Information Science (CLIS, SC(school Certificate)+1), the Diploma in Library and Information Science (DiplLIS, SC+2/3), and the Bachelor in Library and Information Science (BLIS, SC+4 or SC+3) degree. Postgraduate programmes include Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science(HDLIS or PDLIS, SC+4), BLIS(Honours, SC+5), Masters(SC+6), Doctor of Philosophy(Dphil./PhD, SC+8-10).

There are variations among countries regarding the location and duration of the programmes. For instance in Kenya and South Africa, LIS certificates and undergraduate diploma (DiplLIS) are offered largely at technikons or polytechnics. Many LIS bachelor degrees take a duration of four years. However, in a few countries such as Botswana, Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda the duration is three years. The remaining countries that I know of such as ; Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa, Zambia maintain a duration of four years (SC+4).

The major aim of the curriculum is to describe the course content or what is studied. But that is not all. A LIS curriculum is a blueprint document that provides fundamental guidelines for a LIS Department on: what is studied, why, when, where and how it is to be studied, who should study and how the course of study is to be evaluated. Ideally, a good LIS education, as proposed by the South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science (SAILIS) Committee for Formal Education (1997), should be based on the following foundation: there should be a well- equipped and dedicated lecturing staff; a scientifically accountable curriculum demonstrating a clear relationship between theory and practice; suitable classrooms, laboratories and electronic equipment; a dedicated and diligent student body; management of training units; effective communication among all stake holders, appropriate organisational placing; and an emphasis on continuing education as community service.

There is growing interest and concern on quality and management of LIS curriculum in Africa in several surveys(Abidi 1987, van Brakel 1992, Neill & Kgomotso 1995, Ocholla 1995, Rosenberg 1989&94, Odini 1999, Thapisa 1999). An evaluation of 14 LIS curriculum from the University of Botswana, Moi University and Kenyatta University: Kenya, Makarere University: Uganda, Africa University: Zimbabwe, University of Namibia, University of Dakar, Senegal, University of Zambia and several South African LIS departments located within universities provide content in the indexed areas in Table One:

Continuing education bridges the gap between the knowledge, skills and attitudes already held by the trainee and those that are required by the job. It permits flexibility in the designing of courses and modules, and in the recruitment of trainees and trainers. A lot of support to continuing education has been received from several organisations, particulary the German Foundation for International Development (DSE) through workshops and seminars organised in Africa and enormous literature in several series has arisen from this programme sicne early 1980,s. Some widely circulating publication on the status of continuing education in Kenya ( Ocholla 1995, Ojiambo 1994) and South Africa ( Kaniki, 1997) are reported as aresult of DSE support. Views solicited from a few LIS departmental heads indicated for example, that continuing education is offered through local professional bodies and the Extra Mural programme at UCT. The University of Natal offers international students an introduction to computers. RAU does not offer continuing education on IT due to a shortage of staff.

Once a year at the University of Botswana continuing education in IT,CDS ISIS is sponsored by DSE. In Kenya, Moi University’s Faculty of Information Sciences has also been active in this field (Ojiambo, 1994; Ocholla, 1995). Makarere University’s East African School of Library and Information Science is actively involved in continuing education as part of community service and income generation for resource sustainability. The Department of information Studies at the University of Namibia in collaboration with the Namibian Workers Association (NIWA) offers continuing education on Internet navigation, e – mail exploitation, d – base management (CD-ISIS) and networking. In most of these cases in which continuing education is offered, trainees have found the courses highly rewarding. Whilst we recognise the importance of continuing education in Africa, lack of resources and time affect the education programmes in the LIS institutions that previously participated.

Lack of resources affect LIS education in the region. Most institutions report lack of sufficient funds, inability to attract suitable staff, inadequate equipment and lack of computer laboratories dedicated for departmental use, to be some of the handicaps encountered. These problems are not acute in South Africa and Botswana as they are in the rest of the other countries of the region. A study by Rosenberg (1996) on university libraries in Africa painted a bleak picture on the status and the future of information resources for teaching and research in African Universities. Most libraries, she found, rely on obsolete literature, do not acquire new information materials, budget for resources but never get enough support from the government to acquire them while some have stopped budgeting at all.This, she noted, affect proper learning processes in these institutions. LIS education is no exemption in this case but strive to achieve quality education within such environment.

Staff quality, size and expertise is yet another factor worth mentioning. Quality of staff is measured by their professional experience and academic qualification as well as relevant research achievements and responsibilities held after graduation. The minimum academic qualification for a teaching position has been SC+5 ( Honour or Masters) in most cases. The teaching entry point is Junior Lecturer/Assistant Lecturer/Lecturer depending on the other qualifications. There is a desire to preserve Senior Lecturer positions at University LIS departments to PhD holders but this has not always worked. However, Senior lecturer appointments are offered to Masters degree holders provided that they demonstrate good teaching and research and hold several years of university teaching experience. Professorial appointments has been reserved for doctorate holders with god track record of good teaching, research, publications and partly academic adminstration in most of the countries. We however note that most experienced LIS staff are being hired for lucrative teaching positions in Southern African universities in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa causing brain drain to LIS programmes where staff remuneration is low in East, Central and West Africa..

The size of the teaching staff in South Africa LIS departments has not changed from the average of 4 to 5 reported by van Brakel ( 1992). The rest of the region registers an average of 6 with some upto15 and small student staff ratio such as the university of Botswana. Staff/student ratio followed by most LIS departments outside South Africa is 1:12 (internationally recommended for social sciences and humanities) or 1:9 (for natural and applied sciences). South Africa has irregular staff/student ratios. For instance, at the University of Zululand LIS department it is 1:101. This sounds quite obnormal.

The major problems affecting LIS departments in offering LIS education are: resources

(laboratory, computers, suitable staff); coping with the rate at which ICT development occur; cost effectiveness; curriculum (revision, design, scheduling, space); time and the students backgrounds. There are some South African issues with regard to LIS Education highlighted by van Brakel(1997) that still concern us. These issues relate to old and new order in relation to education, formerly privileged and newly equal in relation to sharing, management of tertiary education, difference between the products of competitors, undergraduate course structure – straitjacket for decades e.g. four years two professional majors, lack of innovation, drastic changes in global information environment catalysed by ICT.

Any ideal LIS education in the next millenium will be outcome based, be market or demand driven to be relevant and rewarding. LIS education has to be innovative, responsive to change and competitive.Undergraduate LIS education should be harmonised to offer learners a hybrid of LIS and academic courses necessary for tackling the rapidly changing and highly diversified information market. Systems approach that view LIS education in a holistic manner, thus, students, staff, materials, information, management, curriculum, market, still stand out to be the philosophy underpinning LIS education. The market forces and demand pattern tend to direct the realistic direction that LIS education need to take. It is worthwhile to study the market for LIS graduates closely and rigorously to identify changes in trends and focus. LIS education managers need to learn to involve stake holders in the management and decision making process.

Abidi, S.A.H. 1987, “Curriculum Adjustment Issues for Library and Information Training Programmes in Africa” In: Curriculum adjustments to information studies training programmes in Africa, DSE: Bonn, p. 44 – 50

Aina, L.O. 1993, “Education and training for information technology in Africa.” Inspel, 27(4):242 – 250

Aina, L.O. 1995, Who’s Who in Library and Information Science Training Institutions in Africa. Ibadan, Archlib and Information Services Limited

van Aswegen, E.S. 1997, “Menials or managers? A decade of library and information science education at the Cape Technikon.” S.Afr.J. Libr.Inf.Sci., 65(1) p.53 – 59

van Brakel, P.A. 1992, “Aspects regarding the educational structure of LIS training at South African Universities”.S.Afr.J.Libr.Inf.Sci. 60(3) p.188 – 193

van Brakel, P.A. 1997, “Some South African Issues with Regard to LIS Education.” A paper Presented at a Workshop on Curriculum Development in Information Science and Management. Pretoria, 27 February 1997

Bock, G. 1987, “Synopsis of existing and projected training programmes in the field of information studies at selected African institutions.” In: G Bock and L Huttemann(eds) Curriculum Adjustment in Information Studies Training Programmes in Africa. Bonn, DSE December (dok 1462 A/a – Se 25.09.87)

Kaniki, A.M. 1997, “Continuing Education and training programmes for library and information personnel in South Africa’s educational institutions.” Education for Information 15, 1 -15

Kloppers, M.1997, Information Technology Education in LIS Departments in South Africa. Rand Afrikaans University, Auckland Park, South Africa ( M.Inf. Dissertation – unpublished)

Nassimbeni, M. 1991, “Construction of ideal fieldwork programme: a comparison between student and host institution perspective.” S Afri.J. Libr.Inf. 59(2) 154 -158

Neill R., & Kgomotso M. 1995, “Strategic change. A case study of the Department of Library and Information Studies at the University of Botswana.” Education for Information 13, p.1 – 20

Ocholla, D.N. 1995, “Professional Development Manpower Education and Training in Information Sciences in Kenya.” Library Management 16,8 p. 11 – 27

Ocholla, D.N. 1997, “The responsiveness of Library and Information Departments in developing competencies in application of new technologies for library and infromation services in southern and eastern Africa.” A paper presented at IFLA Council and General Conference Copenhagen, Denmark August (code number of paper 151-Africa-4-E)

Ojiambo, J.B. 1994, “Continuing education activities of information professionals: a case for Kenya” In Hutterman, L (Ed.), Papers and Proceedings of the Information Experts, Meeting Held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 25 to 29 June 1991, Bonn and Harare, October 1991, pp. 25 – 36

Odini, C. 1999, “Training and development of skills in a changing information environment.” Library Management Vol.20 No. 2

Proposed Guidelines for Undergraduate Career Training.South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science: Committee for formal education. Pretoria: 1997

Rosenberg, D. 1989, Survey of Skills and Training Needs of Information professionals in Kenya. Eldoret, Kenya

Rosenberg, D. 1994, Achieving the Optimum Curriculum. A survey of the BSc. in Information Sciences Curriculum in the Context of Market Needs in Kenya. Eldoret, p.56

Rosenberg, D. 1996, University Libraries in Africa. A review of their current state and future potential. Vol. 1&2 Preliminary edition. London, International African Institute

Sitzman, G.L. 1988, African Libraries. Metuchen, Scarecrow Press Inc.

Stilwel C. & Vietzen C.1995, “Improving education for library and information work. the simulated fieldwork practicum at the University of Natal.” Education for Information 13, 21 -34

Thapisa, A. 1999, “Developing lasting competencies for a twenty- first century information economy.” Library Management Vol 20 No. 2

*Figures provided by Head of the Programme

**Figures calculated from the curriculum

The table also show that most LIS education programmes in the region are based within the Universities.